From Rome’s Eternal Splendor to Byzantium’s Final Stand: Economics, Society, Culture, Technology, and Global Connections The Roman and Byzantine Empires (27 BCE–1453 CE) were vibrant civilizations defined by agriculture (70–80% of the economy), trade/services (15–25%), and manufacturing (5–15%). During the Pax Romana (27 BCE–180 CE), 20–30% of the 50–70 million population were slaves, with urbanization at 10–15%, centered in Rome. Constantine’s era (306–337 CE) introduced the gold solidus, Christian dominance, and Constantinople’s rise, with slaves at 15–25%. The Byzantine Empire peaked under the Macedonians (867–1056 CE), excelling in trade, silk production, and iconic art, but fell to the Ottomans in 1453 due to military, economic, and technological weaknesses. Urban professions evolved from artisans to clergy, while banking shifted from argentarii to churches and Italian merchants. Debt, driven by debasement, tribute, and loans, strained both empires. Cultural achievements...