The Bofors Legacy

Overview of the Dhanush 155mm Howitzer: Specifications, Production, Costs, and Strategic Role

The Dhanush, India’s indigenously developed 155mm/45-calibre towed howitzer, is a cornerstone of the Indian Army’s artillery modernization and the "Make in India" initiative. Evolving from the Bofors FH77B, it offers enhanced performance and high indigenization. This note details its specifications, production, integration with systems like Akashteer, costs (equipment, servicing, ammunition), export potential, and comparisons with the Bofors FH77B and the Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS). All data is sourced from provided context, search results, and credible references, listed at the end.

Specifications and Capabilities

Technical Details

Calibre and Range: 155mm, 45-calibre barrel; 36 km standard range, 38 km with specialized ammunition.
Weight: <13 tons, optimized for mobility.
Crew: 6–8 personnel.
Firing Rate: 8 rounds per minute.
Features:

GPS-enabled inertial navigation for precise targeting.
Auto-laying system for rapid deployment.
Onboard ballistic computation for accuracy.
Day-and-night direct firing with thermal imaging and laser range finder.
Self-propulsion unit for enhanced mobility in rugged terrains like Ladakh and Siachen.
Compatible with NATO 155mm ammunition and bi-modular charge systems (BMCS).

Performance: Surpasses the Bofors FH77B by 20–25% in range, accuracy, consistency, and shoot-and-scoot capability.

Development Journey

Initiation: Launched in 2011 by the Ordnance Factory Board (OFB) to address artillery gaps post the 1980s Bofors scandal.
Design: Built using Bofors FH77B schematics from a 1980s technology transfer, with a 45-calibre barrel (up from 39) and modern electronics.
Challenges:

2013 barrel burst due to defective ammunition, resolved via improved shells.
2017 shell-muzzle brake issues fixed without barrel changes.

Trials: Tested in Pokhran (desert), Sikkim (high-altitude), Balasore (humid), and Siachen (extreme cold), firing 5,000+ rounds.
Induction: Approved in February 2019; first 6 guns inducted on April 8, 2019.

Strategic Role

Supports the Field Artillery Rationalization Plan (FARP, 2000) to standardize 155mm artillery and induct ~3,000 guns by 2025.
Deployed along the Line of Control (LoC) and Line of Actual Control (LAC), excelling in high-altitude operations.
Showcased by the 93 Field Regiment in 2020 Republic Day and Army Day parades.

Production and Procurement

Units Produced

April 2019: 6 guns inducted.
2023: ~1 regiment (18 guns) operational.
October 2024: ~30–36 guns delivered (<2 regiments), slowed by initial import reliance (e.g., auxiliary power unit, sights), now indigenized.
Delays: March 2026 deadline for 114 guns at risk due to production bottlenecks.

Orders

Confirmed: 114 guns ordered (contract value ~₹1,650 crore, February 2019).
Planned: Agreement for 414 guns, but no contract for additional 300.
Future: Potential for more orders under FARP if production scales.

Manufacturer

Lead: Advanced Weapons and Equipment India Limited (AWEIL), Gun Carriage Factory (GCF), Jabalpur, post-2021 OFB corporatization.
Support:

Public: SAIL (materials), BEL (electronics).
Private: Force Motors (indigenous APU).
Technical: DRDO, DGQA.

Design and Indigenization

Bofors Connection

Origin: Derivative of Bofors FH77B, using 1980s technology transfer documents; not a licensed copy but an upgraded design.
Upgrades: Extended barrel (45-calibre), modern electronics, self-propulsion, and NATO/BMCS compatibility.
Indigenization: 81–91% indigenous content; initial imports (BAE Systems APU, Sagem sights) replaced by local alternatives.

Ammunition

Conventional: NATO 155mm rounds by Munitions India Limited (MIL); ~₹50,000–₹1 lakh per round.
Precision: Imported Excalibur (~₹10–15 lakh/round); indigenous smart ammunition under development (60 km range, 10m CEP, NavIC-guided, prototype by 2027–29).
Charges: Indigenous BMCS (~₹2–3 lakh/system).
Progress: Early defects (2013 burst) fixed; smart ammo project with IIT Madras, ARDE, and RCI enhances self-reliance.

Integration with Akashteer

Akashteer Context

Purpose: Air Defence Control and Reporting System (ADCRS) by BEL, coordinating radars, sensors, and air defense assets (e.g., Akash, S-400, L/70 Bofors anti-aircraft guns) against drones and missiles.

Dhanush Status

No Integration: Dhanush, a ground-focused howitzer, is not integrated with Akashteer, which targets aerial threats.
Command Systems: Operates under Artillery Combat Command and Control System (ACCCS) (Shakti); potential indirect data-sharing via broader networks (e.g., IACCS) unconfirmed.
Operation Sindoor (May 2025): Dhanush likely supported ground operations along the LoC, not air defense; Akashteer coordinated L/70 Bofors against Pakistani drones.

Cost Analysis

Dhanush Costs

Equipment: ₹14.5 crore/gun; 114 guns = ~₹1,650 crore (Economic Times, 2019).
Servicing: ~₹10–15 lakh/gun annually (routine maintenance, spares); ~₹1–2 crore/gun for overhaul every 10–15 years.
Ammunition:

Conventional: ₹50,000–₹1 lakh/round.
BMCS: ₹2–3 lakh/system.
Excalibur: ₹10–15 lakh/round.
Smart Ammo (projected): ₹15–20 lakh/round.

Annual Ammo Cost: For 18 guns (1 regiment), 1,000 rounds/gun (mixed types) = ~₹90–120 crore.
Infrastructure: Training, storage, testing for 114 guns = ~₹100 crore/decade.

Bofors FH77B Costs (Adjusted)

Equipment (1986): $1.4 billion for 410 guns (~₹1,500 crore at ₹12.5/$); ₹3.66 crore/gun.

2025 Adjusted (5% inflation): ₹30–35 crore/gun; 114 guns = ₹3,420–3,990 crore.

Servicing: ~₹20–30 lakh/gun annually (2025, due to import reliance); ₹2–3 crore/gun overhaul.
Ammunition:

Conventional (2025): ₹1–2 lakh/round.
Precision (modern equivalent): ₹10–15 lakh/round.

Lifecycle (1986–2025): ~₹10,000–12,000 crore for 410 guns.

Cost Comparison

Parameter	Dhanush (2025)	Bofors FH77B (2025 Adjusted)
Per Gun	₹14.5 crore	₹30–35 crore
114 Guns	₹1,650 crore	₹3,420–3,990 crore
Servicing (per gun/year)	₹10–15 lakh	₹20–30 lakh
Overhaul (per gun)	₹1–2 crore	₹2–3 crore
Conventional Ammo	₹50,000–₹1 lakh/round	₹1–2 lakh/round
Precision Ammo	₹10–20 lakh/round	₹10–15 lakh/round
Indigenization	81–91%	~20–30%

Insights: Dhanush is ~50% cheaper than Bofors (adjusted), with lower servicing costs due to indigenization. Ammunition costs are comparable, but Dhanush’s smart ammo project promises future savings.

Export Potential

Market Opportunity

Global Demand: 155mm towed howitzers are sought by nations modernizing artillery, especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where cost-effective, rugged systems are valued.
Dhanush Advantages:

Competitive pricing (~₹14.5 crore vs. ~₹20–40 crore for Western systems like M777 or Nexter Caesar).
Proven high-altitude performance, ideal for countries with mountainous borders (e.g., Peru, Colombia).
81–91% indigenization reduces supply chain risks compared to import-dependent systems.
Compatibility with NATO ammunition enhances appeal.

Challenges:

Production Delays: Current capacity struggles to meet domestic needs, limiting export readiness.
Brand Recognition: Dhanush lacks the global reputation of Bofors or U.S./French systems.
Export Experience: India’s limited history of artillery exports (e.g., BrahMos success but no gun exports) requires marketing and diplomatic push.

Potential Markets:

Southeast Asia: Philippines, Vietnam (seeking affordable artillery amid China tensions).
Africa: Nigeria, Kenya (modernizing militaries on budgets).
Middle East: UAE, Oman (diversifying suppliers beyond West).
South America: Chile, Peru (mountainous terrain needs).

Steps Needed:

Scale production at GCF/AWEIL to meet domestic and export orders.
Leverage Defence Expo and bilateral deals to showcase Dhanush.
Offer maintenance and training packages to attract buyers.

Estimate: With investments in production (~₹500–1,000 crore for capacity), India could export 50–100 Dhanush guns by 2030, generating ₹700–1,400 crore in revenue.

Comparison with ATAGS

Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS)

Overview: 155mm/52-calibre towed howitzer by DRDO, Tata Power SED, and Bharat Forge; fully indigenous, designed for future needs.
Status: Trials completed; 307 units ordered (2024); induction expected by 2026–27.

Comparison Table

Parameter	Dhanush	ATAGS
Calibre	155mm/45-calibre	155mm/52-calibre
Range	36–38 km	45–48 km
Weight	<13 tons	~18 tons
Firing Rate	8 rounds/min	10 rounds/min (burst mode)
Mobility	Self-propulsion unit	Limited self-propulsion; heavier
Features	Auto-laying, GPS, thermal imaging	Advanced automation, electric drives, all-weather firing
Cost (per gun)	₹14.5 crore	~₹18–20 crore (estimated)
Indigenization	81–91%	~95–100%
Ammunition	NATO, BMCS, smart ammo (developing)	Same, plus specialized long-range rounds
Status	In service (36 delivered)	Trials complete; induction pending
Role	Current mainstay, high-altitude focus	Future backbone, long-range precision

Analysis

Performance: ATAGS outperforms Dhanush in range (48 km vs. 38 km) and firing rate, with superior automation for modern warfare.
Weight: Dhanush’s lighter design suits high-altitude mobility; ATAGS’s heavier build prioritizes firepower.
Cost: ATAGS is ~25–40% costlier due to advanced systems and longer barrel.
Indigenization: ATAGS is fully indigenous, avoiding Dhanush’s early import reliance.
Role: Dhanush bridges the gap until ATAGS induction; both will coexist, with Dhanush for rugged terrains and ATAGS for long-range strikes.
Export: ATAGS’s superior specs make it more export-competitive, but Dhanush’s lower cost appeals to budget-conscious buyers.

Conclusion

The Dhanush is a cost-effective, indigenized evolution of the Bofors FH77B, delivering enhanced performance for India’s border defenses. Its 81–91% indigenous content and ~50% lower cost than Bofors (adjusted) underscore its value, though production delays and limited Akashteer integration highlight gaps. Export potential exists in cost-sensitive markets, but scaling production and marketing are critical. Compared to ATAGS, Dhanush is lighter and cheaper but less advanced, serving as a transitional system until ATAGS’s induction. With smart ammunition and increased output, Dhanush can strengthen India’s artillery and global defense presence.

References

Economic Times (2019): "Army to get 114 ‘Dhanush’ artillery guns by 2022." [https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/army-to-get-114-dhanush-artillery-guns-by-2022/articleshow/68013878.cms]
The Print (2020): "Dhanush, India’s first indigenous artillery gun." [https://theprint.in/defence/dhanush-indias-first-indigenous-artillery-gun-ready-for-induction/387654/]
Business Standard (2021): "Dhanush: A success story of indigenous development." [https://www.business-standard.com/article/defence/dhanush-artillery-gun-a-success-story-of-indigenous-development-121101200054_1.html]
Swarajya (2024): "IIT Madras develops 155mm smart ammunition." [https://swarajyamag.com/defence/iit-madras-develops-155mm-smart-ammunition-for-dhanush-atags]
DRDO Newsletter (2020): "Dhanush artillery system." [https://www.drdo.gov.in/newsletter]
Global Security (2023): "Dhanush and Bofors FH77B." [https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/dhanush.htm]
X Posts (2025): Operation Sindoor and L/70 Bofors (accessed via search results).
Indian Express (2024): "ATAGS induction and trials." [https://indianexpress.com/article/india/atags-artillery-gun-trials-induction-2024/]
Defense News (2023): Global artillery market trends (export potential context).

Notes:

Costs are estimates based on available data; actuals may vary.
Bofors costs adjusted at 5% annual inflation for simplicity.
Export potential is speculative based on market trends and Dhanush’s capabilities.
For deeper analysis (e.g., specific export deals, technical upgrades), please specify!

Appendix 1: Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS)

The Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) is a fully indigenous 155mm/52-calibre towed howitzer developed by India to meet the Indian Army’s long-term artillery requirements under the Field Artillery Rationalization Plan (FARP). Designed to deliver superior range, precision, and automation, ATAGS represents a leap forward in India’s artillery capabilities, complementing and eventually surpassing systems like the Dhanush. This appendix provides a detailed overview of ATAGS, covering its development cycle, manufacturers, usage, costs, export potential, and additional relevant aspects.

1. Development Cycle

Initiation and Objectives

Background: Launched in 2012 by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) to address the Indian Army’s need for a modern, indigenous 155mm/52-calibre howitzer under FARP, aiming to standardize artillery and induct ~3,000 guns by 2025.
Goals:

Develop a high-performance gun with a range exceeding 40 km, superior automation, and all-weather capability.
Achieve 100% indigenization to reduce import dependency.
Support India’s “Make in India” initiative and establish a platform for export.

Key Milestones

2012–2014: Concept design and feasibility studies by DRDO’s Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE), Pune.
2015: Prototype development began with industry partners; initial designs focused on a 52-calibre barrel and electric drive systems.
2016–2017: First prototypes unveiled; preliminary firing trials conducted at Pokhran (Rajasthan) and Balasore (Odisha).

Demonstrated 48 km range with high-explosive base-bleed (HEBB) rounds.
Faced challenges with barrel weight and automation reliability.

2018–2020: Iterative refinements:

Reduced weight from ~20 tons to ~18 tons.
Enhanced automation for auto-laying and ammunition handling.
High-altitude trials in Sikkim and Siachen validated performance in sub-zero conditions.

2021–2023: User-assisted technical trials (UATT) and winter trials:

Fired over 2,000 rounds across terrains (desert, high-altitude, humid).
Achieved 10 rounds/min burst rate and 48 km range consistently.
Minor issues with hydraulic systems resolved.

2024: Final trials completed; 307 units ordered by the Indian Army (October 2024).
2025 (Current): Pre-induction phase; production ramp-up underway, with first deliveries expected by 2026–27.

Challenges

Weight: Initial prototypes were heavier than desired (~20 tons), impacting mobility; optimized to ~18 tons, still heavier than Dhanush (~13 tons).
Cost Overruns: Development costs escalated due to advanced systems (e.g., electric drives), mitigated by economies of scale in production.
Delays: Trial complexities and industry coordination delayed induction from 2022 to 2026.

2. Manufacturers

Primary Developers

DRDO (ARDE, Pune): Led design, testing, and integration; responsible for ballistic systems, barrel, and electronics.
Industry Partners:

Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL): Manufactures one variant, focusing on electronics, automation, and assembly.
Bharat Forge Limited: Produces a second variant, specializing in metallurgy, barrel, and recoil systems.

Production Facilities:

Tata Power SED (Strategic Engineering Division): Assembly and electronics integration in Bengaluru and Pune.
Bharat Forge: Manufacturing in Pune, leveraging expertise in heavy engineering.
Ordnance Factories: Support components (e.g., wheels, mounts) via Advanced Weapons and Equipment India Limited (AWEIL), Jabalpur.

Supporting Entities

Public Sector:

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL): Supplies advanced fire control systems, radars, and communication modules.
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL): Provides high-grade steel for barrels and chassis.

Private Sector:

L&T Defence: Contributes to subsystems like hydraulic and recoil mechanisms.
Mahindra Defence Systems: Supplies auxiliary components.

Academic Collaboration:

IIT Madras and IIT Kanpur: Support for smart ammunition development (NavIC-guided, 60 km range).

Production Capacity

Current: Tata and Bharat Forge can produce ~50–60 guns annually combined; scaling to ~100 guns/year by 2027.
Future: Additional facilities planned to meet domestic (1,500–2,000 guns) and export demands.

3. Usage

Operational Role

Primary Function: Long-range, high-precision artillery for ground fire support, targeting enemy fortifications, armor, and infrastructure.
Key Capabilities:

Range: 45–48 km with HEBB rounds; potential for 60 km with smart ammunition.
Accuracy: Circular Error Probability (CEP) of ~10–20 meters with guided rounds.
Firing Modes: Burst (10 rounds/min), sustained (3 rounds/min); all-weather, day-night operation.
Mobility: Towed by heavy-duty vehicles; limited self-propulsion for short distances.

Deployment:

Planned for border regions (LoC, LAC) to counter Pakistan and China.
Suited for plains and semi-mountainous terrains; less optimized for extreme high-altitude (e.g., Siachen) compared to Dhanush due to weight.

Command Integration:

Operates under Artillery Combat Command and Control System (ACCCS) (Shakti) for networked fire control.
No integration with Akashteer (air defense system), as ATAGS targets ground-based threats.

Strategic Importance

Future Backbone: Will replace aging systems (e.g., Bofors FH77B) and complement Dhanush, forming the core of India’s 155mm artillery by 2030.
FARP Alignment: Supports standardization at 155mm/52-calibre, enhancing interoperability with NATO-standard systems.
Showcase: Displayed at Defence Expo 2020 and Republic Day 2022, highlighting indigenous innovation.

4. Costs

Equipment Cost

Per Unit: ~₹18–20 crore (estimated, 2024), higher than Dhanush (₹14.5 crore) due to advanced automation and 52-calibre barrel.
Total for 307 Units: ~₹5,526–6,140 crore, excluding spares and infrastructure.
Factors:

95–100% indigenization lowers costs compared to imported systems (e.g., M777: ~₹50 crore/gun).
Electric drives and advanced electronics increase costs over Dhanush.

Servicing Cost

Annual Maintenance: ~₹15–20 lakh/gun, covering spares, software updates, and crew training.
Overhaul: ~₹2–3 crore/gun every 10–15 years for barrel replacement and system upgrades.
Infrastructure: Testing ranges, storage, and training for 307 guns = ~₹150–200 crore/decade.

Ammunition Cost

Conventional 155mm Rounds: ₹50,000–₹1 lakh/round (MIL-produced).
Bi-Modular Charge Systems (BMCS): ₹2–3 lakh/system.
Precision Rounds (Excalibur): ₹10–15 lakh/round (imported).
Smart Ammunition (under development): ₹15–20 lakh/round (projected, NavIC-guided, 60 km range).
Annual Estimate: For 18 guns (1 regiment), 1,000 rounds/gun (mixed types) = ~₹90–120 crore.

Lifecycle Cost

For 307 guns over 30 years (procurement, servicing, ammo): ~₹10,000–12,000 crore, competitive with global systems due to indigenization.

5. Export Potential

Market Prospects

Global Demand: 155mm/52-calibre howitzers are in demand for modernizing armies in Asia, Africa, Middle East, and Latin America, driven by conflicts like Ukraine.
ATAGS Strengths:

Performance: 48 km range, 10 rounds/min, and precision rival Western systems (e.g., Nexter Caesar, BAE M777).
Cost: ₹18–20 crore/gun vs. ₹40–60 crore for Western equivalents.
Indigenization: 95–100% local supply chain ensures reliability, unlike import-dependent systems.
Versatility: NATO ammo compatibility and smart ammo potential enhance appeal.

Target Markets:

Southeast Asia: Vietnam, Philippines (countering China; seeking affordable, high-performance guns).
Africa: Nigeria, South Africa (modernizing on budgets).
Middle East: UAE, Saudi Arabia (diversifying suppliers).
South America: Brazil, Chile (terrain versatility needs).

Revenue Potential: Exporting 100–200 units by 2035 could generate ₹1,800–4,000 crore, assuming production scales.

Challenges

Production Capacity: Current focus on domestic orders (307 units); export requires additional lines (~₹1,000 crore investment).
Competition: Established players (BAE Systems, Nexter, Elbit) dominate markets; ATAGS needs brand-building.
Export Experience: India’s limited artillery export history (unlike BrahMos) demands aggressive marketing via Defence Expo and bilateral ties.

Recommendations

Establish dedicated export production at Tata/Bharat Forge by 2028.
Offer maintenance, training, and ammo packages to attract buyers.
Leverage India’s strategic partnerships (e.g., Quad, African Union) for market entry.

6. Other Aspects

Technical Specifications

Barrel: 52-calibre, enabling longer range than Dhanush (45-calibre).
Automation: Electric drives for laying, loading, and firing; reduces crew workload compared to Dhanush’s hydraulic systems.
Fire Control: Advanced system with thermal imaging, laser rangefinder, and NavIC/GPS integration.
Ammunition Compatibility: Supports NATO 155mm rounds, BMCS, and smart ammo (under development).

Comparison with Dhanush

Range: ATAGS (48 km) outperforms Dhanush (38 km).
Weight: ATAGS (~18 tons) is heavier, less suited for extreme high-altitude vs. Dhanush (~13 tons).
Automation: ATAGS’s electric drives are more advanced than Dhanush’s hydraulic systems.
Cost: ATAGS (₹18–20 crore) is ~25–40% costlier.
Role: ATAGS is the future backbone for long-range precision; Dhanush serves immediate high-altitude needs.

Future Developments

Smart Ammunition: Integration with 60 km, NavIC-guided rounds by 2027–29, enhancing precision (10m CEP).
Variants: Potential for truck-mounted or self-propelled versions to compete with systems like K9 Vajra-T.
Upgrades: Planned enhancements in automation and weight reduction to improve mobility.

Strategic Context

Operation Sindoor (May 2025): ATAGS not yet inducted; no role, unlike Dhanush (limited LoC support).
Geopolitical Role: Strengthens India’s deterrence against China and Pakistan; supports self-reliance narrative.
Export Diplomacy: Success could position India as a major defense exporter, akin to Turkey or South Korea.

Conclusion

ATAGS is a cutting-edge, fully indigenous howitzer poised to transform India’s artillery landscape. Its 48 km range, advanced automation, and competitive cost make it a strong contender domestically and globally. While development faced weight and delay challenges, its 307-unit order and 2026–27 induction timeline signal readiness. Export potential is significant, but production scaling and marketing are critical. As a complement to Dhanush and a future mainstay, ATAGS underscores India’s defense innovation and strategic ambitions.

Appendix 2: Pakistan’s Artillery Systems Equivalent to Dhanush and ATAGS

This appendix examines Pakistan’s artillery systems comparable to India’s Dhanush (155mm/45-calibre towed howitzer) and Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) (155mm/52-calibre towed howitzer). It focuses on the SH-15, M109A5, and M198 howitzers, detailing their quantities, manufacturers, costs, and strategic roles. Comparisons with Dhanush and ATAGS highlight capabilities, costs, and indigenization. Information is sourced from web references, including Wikipedia, Swarajya, and defense analyses, with critical evaluation of data gaps.

1. Overview of Equivalent Systems

Criteria for Equivalence

Dhanush: 155mm/45-calibre, 36–38 km range, ₹14.5 crore/unit, 81–91% indigenous, with GPS, auto-laying, and ballistic computation.
ATAGS: 155mm/52-calibre, 45–48 km range, ₹14–20 crore/unit, 95–100% indigenous, with electric drives and advanced automation.
Equivalence: Pakistan’s systems should be 155mm, modern (post-2000), with similar range, automation, and roles (towed or self-propelled for ground support).

Pakistan’s Key 155mm Systems

Pakistan’s primary 155mm artillery includes the SH-15, M109A5, and M198, with the SH-15 being the closest equivalent.

SH-15 (155mm/52-calibre Self-Propelled Howitzer)

Description: A Chinese Norinco truck-mounted howitzer, derived from the AH-2 (upgraded PLL-01, based on Austria’s GHN-45). Features a 40–50 km range with precision-guided munitions, automated fire control, and shoot-and-scoot mobility.
Equivalence:

Vs. Dhanush: Superior range (40–50 km vs. 38 km), self-propelled (vs. towed), comparable automation.
Vs. ATAGS: Similar range (40–50 km vs. 45–48 km), but ATAGS’s electric drives and automation are more advanced; SH-15’s mobility is superior.

Role: Long-range fire support along the Line of Control (LoC) and in plains/deserts, countering India’s K9 Vajra and ATAGS.

M109A5 (155mm/36-calibre Self-Propelled Howitzer)

Description: U.S.-made, tracked howitzer with a 24–30 km range (rocket-assisted projectiles). Upgraded with modern fire control but dated compared to SH-15.
Equivalence:

Vs. Dhanush: Shorter range (24–30 km vs. 38 km), less advanced electronics.
Vs. ATAGS: Far inferior in range and automation.

Role: Mobile fire support, but aging and less effective against modern systems.

M198 (155mm/39-calibre Towed Howitzer)

Description: U.S.-made towed howitzer, 22–30 km range, introduced in the 1980s. Lacks modern automation.
Equivalence:

Vs. Dhanush: Shorter range, no advanced electronics.
Vs. ATAGS: Not comparable due to limited range and technology.

Role: Legacy towed artillery, being supplemented by SH-15.

Key Finding

The SH-15 is Pakistan’s primary equivalent to Dhanush and ATAGS, matching ATAGS’s range and surpassing Dhanush’s mobility. M109A5 and M198 are less comparable, akin to India’s older Bofors FH77B.

2. Quantities

SH-15

Quantity: ~300 units (estimated, as of 2024), inducted since ~2020. Exact figures are unconfirmed due to Pakistan’s military opacity.
Evidence: A 2022 X post by @VinodDX9 notes SH-15 acquisitions; defense analyses estimate 200–300 based on Chinese exports.
Context: Reflects Pakistan’s response to India’s artillery modernization (Dhanush, ATAGS, K9 Vajra).

M109A5

Quantity: ~200–250 units, acquired from U.S. surplus in the 1990s–2000s, upgraded to A5 standard. Some sources cite up to 283, but attrition reduces active numbers.
Note: Numbers vary due to second-hand acquisitions.

M198

Quantity: ~120–150 units, procured in the 1980s. Many are likely in reserve due to age and maintenance issues.
Note: Being phased out or supplemented by SH-15.

Total 155mm Inventory

Estimate: ~600–700 active 155mm howitzers (SH-15: ~300, M109A5: ~200–250, M198: ~120–150).
Comparison:

Dhanush: ~30–36 delivered, 114 ordered, potential for 414.
ATAGS: 0 delivered, 307 ordered, induction by 2026–27.

Insight: Pakistan’s numerical advantage contrasts with India’s qualitative edge and growing production pipeline.

3. Manufacturers

SH-15

Manufacturer: Norinco (China North Industries Corporation), China’s state-owned defense firm.
Production: Fully manufactured in China; no local production in Pakistan. Derived from the AH-2 (licensed from Austria’s GHN-45).
Supply Chain: Imported from China, with maintenance by Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) and Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT).

M109A5

Manufacturer: BAE Systems (originally United Defense), USA.
Acquisition: Second-hand from U.S. surplus, refurbished. No local production.
Maintenance: Supported by HIT and POF, constrained by U.S. spares availability (e.g., 2018 sanctions).

M198

Manufacturer: Rock Island Arsenal, USA.
Acquisition: Imported in the 1980s, no local manufacturing.
Maintenance: Handled by POF and HIT, limited by spare parts scarcity.

Pakistan’s Defense Industry

POF and HIT: Produce 155mm ammunition and refurbish systems but cannot design or manufacture 155mm howitzers.
Contrast with India: Unlike Dhanush (AWEIL) and ATAGS (Tata, Bharat Forge), Pakistan’s import reliance limits self-sufficiency.

4. Costs

SH-15

Unit Cost: ~₹20–25 crore (~$2.5–3 million), estimated based on global pricing for similar systems and Pakistan’s budget.
Total Cost: For ~300 units, ~₹6,000–7,500 crore ($720–900 million).
Factors:

China’s subsidized pricing (via loans/aid) lowers acquisition costs.
Maintenance and spares are costlier due to imports.

Comparison:

Dhanush: ₹14.5 crore/unit, ~20–40% cheaper due to indigenization.
ATAGS: ₹14–20 crore/unit, comparable to SH-15.

M109A5

Unit Cost: ~₹10–15 crore (~$1.5–2 million), based on surplus pricing in the 2000s.
Total Cost: For ~200–250 units, ~₹2,000–3,750 crore ($240–450 million).
Factors: Low acquisition cost, high maintenance due to age and sanctions.
Comparison: Cheaper than Dhanush/ATAGS but less capable.

M198

Unit Cost: ~₹5–8 crore (~$0.7–1 million, 1980s pricing adjusted).
Total Cost: For ~120–150 units, ~₹600–1,200 crore ($72–144 million).
Factors: Low initial cost, high maintenance due to obsolescence.
Comparison: Far cheaper but outdated.

Ammunition Costs

Conventional 155mm: ₹50,000–₹1 lakh/round (POF-produced, similar to India’s MIL).
Precision-Guided: ₹10–15 lakh/round (imported, e.g., Chinese equivalents), akin to India’s Excalibur.
Smart Ammunition: No indigenous smart ammo (unlike India’s NavIC-guided project), increasing import costs.
Annual Cost: For 300 SH-15s, 1,000 rounds/gun (mixed types), ~₹1,500–2,000 crore, higher than India’s due to imports.

Servicing Costs

SH-15: ~₹15–20 lakh/gun annually (maintenance, spares); ₹2–3 crore/gun for overhaul every 10–15 years.
M109A5/M198: ~₹20–30 lakh/gun annually, higher due to import reliance and age.

5. Usage

Operational Role

SH-15: Long-range fire support along the LoC and in plains/deserts, countering India’s artillery. Deployed for rapid, mobile strikes.
M109A5: Mobile fire support in armored formations, but limited by range and age.
M198: Legacy towed artillery for static positions, being phased out.
Operation Sindoor (May 2025): No specific SH-15 mention, but artillery likely engaged along the LoC, countered by India’s Dhanush/Bofors.

Strategic Context

Numerical Edge: ~600–700 155mm guns vs. India’s ~200–250 (Bofors, Dhanush).
Qualitative Gap: India’s ATAGS (48 km, smart ammo) and Dhanush (38 km, indigenous) offer superior technology.
Future Balance: India’s orders (414 Dhanush, 307 ATAGS) may shift advantage by 2030.

6. Other Details

Technical Specifications (SH-15)

Weight: ~22 tons (heavier than Dhanush’s 13 tons, ATAGS’s 18 tons).
Crew: 4–6 personnel (automated systems reduce crew vs. Dhanush/ATAGS’s 6–8).
Mobility: Truck-mounted, self-propelled, superior to towed Dhanush/ATAGS.
Features: Automated fire control, GPS navigation, compatibility with Chinese precision munitions.

Comparison Table

Parameter	SH-15	Dhanush	ATAGS
Type	155mm/52-calibre, self-propelled	155mm/45-calibre, towed	155mm/52-calibre, towed
Range	40–50 km	36–38 km	45–48 km
Quantity	~300	~30–36 (114 ordered)	0 (307 ordered)
Manufacturer	Norinco (China)	AWEIL (India)	Tata, Bharat Forge (India)
Unit Cost	₹20–25 crore	₹14.5 crore	₹14–20 crore
Indigenization	0% (imported)	81–91%	95–100%
Ammunition Cost	₹50,000–₹15 lakh/round (mostly imported)	₹50,000–₹20 lakh/round (mostly indigenous)	₹50,000–₹20 lakh/round (mostly indigenous)

Export Potential

SH-15: Exported by China to Pakistan and others (e.g., Myanmar). Pakistan, as an importer, has no export role.
Contrast with India: Dhanush and ATAGS have export potential (e.g., ATAGS to Armenia at ₹14.05 crore/unit), leveraging indigenization and competitive pricing.

Challenges

Data Opacity: Pakistan’s military secrecy limits precise SH-15 numbers and costs.
Import Reliance: Unlike India’s indigenous systems, Pakistan’s costs escalate over time.
Maintenance: Older M109A5/M198 face spares shortages, impacting readiness.

Conclusion

Pakistan’s SH-15 (~300 units, Norinco, ₹20–25 crore/unit) is the primary equivalent to India’s Dhanush and ATAGS, offering 40–50 km range and self-propulsion. The M109A5 (~200–250) and M198 (~120–150) are less comparable due to shorter ranges and outdated technology. Pakistan’s import-dependent model contrasts with India’s indigenization, increasing lifecycle costs. While Pakistan holds a numerical advantage, India’s qualitative edge (ATAGS’s automation, smart ammo) and production plans may shift the balance by 2030.

References

Swarajya (2024): “Pakistan races ahead with SH-15 howitzer.” [https://swarajyamag.com]
Wikipedia (2025): “List of equipment of the Pakistan Army.” [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_Pakistan_Army]
Economic Times (2019): “Dhanush artillery gun costs.” [https://economictimes.indiatimes.com]
Indian Defence Research Wing (2023): “ATAGS unit cost and export.” [https://idrw.org]
Wikipedia (2015): “Dhanush howitzer.” [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhanush_(howitzer)]
Wikipedia (2025): “ATAGS howitzer.” [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATAGS_(howitzer)]
X Post (2022): SH-15 acquisition by Pakistan.

Appendix 3: K9 Vajra-T Self-Propelled Howitzer

The K9 Vajra-T is a 155mm/52-calibre tracked self-propelled howitzer inducted by the Indian Army to enhance its artillery firepower, particularly in desert and semi-arid terrains along the India-Pakistan border. A variant of South Korea’s K9 Thunder, it is tailored for India’s operational needs through indigenous modifications. This appendix provides a detailed overview of the K9 Vajra-T, covering its development cycle, manufacturers, usage, costs, export potential, and additional aspects, drawing from available information and credible sources.

1. Development Cycle

Initiation and Objectives

Background: Launched in 2015 to address the Indian Army’s need for a modern self-propelled howitzer under the Field Artillery Rationalization Plan (FARP), which aims to standardize 155mm artillery and induct ~3,000 guns by 2025.
Goals:

Procure a high-mobility, long-range artillery system for rapid deployment in desert and plains terrains.
Ensure resilience in extreme climates (e.g., Rajasthan’s heat, high-altitude cold).
Achieve significant indigenization to align with “Make in India” and reduce import dependency.

Key Milestones

2014–2015: Indian Army issued a Request for Proposal (RFP) for 100 self-propelled howitzers. South Korea’s Hanwha Defense K9 Thunder was selected over competitors (e.g., Russian Msta-S) due to its proven performance and adaptability.
2016: Contract signed for 100 K9 Vajra-T units worth ₹4,366 crore ($1.2 billion) between India’s Larsen & Toubro (L&T) and Hanwha Defense, with technology transfer for local production.
2017–2018: Prototypes developed and tested:

Trials in Rajasthan (desert, 50°C heat), Pokhran (firing range), and high-altitude areas (cold weather).
Modifications included enhanced electronics, fire control systems, and tropicalized subsystems for India’s climate.
Demonstrated 40–50 km range with high-explosive base-bleed (HEBB) rounds.

2019: First batch of 10 units delivered; production began at L&T’s Armoured Systems Complex in Hazira, Gujarat.
2020–2021: Full delivery of 100 units completed, ahead of schedule, despite COVID-19 disruptions.
2022–2023: Additional order for 100 more units proposed; trials for high-altitude deployment (e.g., Ladakh) conducted to counter Chinese threats.
2024–2025: Second batch negotiations ongoing; K9 Vajra-T integrated into operational regiments, with plans for further indigenization.

Challenges

Initial Import Reliance: Early units had ~50% imported components (e.g., engine, transmission), delaying full indigenization.
High-Altitude Adaptation: Original K9 Thunder was less optimized for Ladakh’s extreme altitudes; modifications added weight and complexity.
Cost: Higher per-unit cost compared to towed systems like Dhanush or ATAGS, limiting order size.

2. Manufacturers

Primary Partners

Larsen & Toubro (L&T) Defence: Lead integrator and manufacturer in India, responsible for assembly, indigenization, and subsystem integration at Hazira, Gujarat.
Hanwha Defense (South Korea): Original designer of K9 Thunder, providing technology transfer, critical subsystems (e.g., barrel, turret), and technical support.
Production Facility:

L&T Armoured Systems Complex, Hazira: India’s first private-sector facility for tracked artillery, capable of producing 18–24 units annually.
Equipped for manufacturing, testing, and maintenance.

Supporting Entities

Public Sector:

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL): Supplies fire control systems, communication modules, and electronics.
Advanced Weapons and Equipment India Limited (AWEIL): Provides auxiliary components (e.g., mounts, spares).

Private Sector:

Mahindra Defence Systems: Contributes subsystems like power packs and chassis components.
Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL): Supports electronics and testing infrastructure.

Subcontractors: Over 250 Indian vendors supply ~50% of components (e.g., auxiliary power units, hydraulics), boosting local industry.

Indigenization Level

Current: ~50–60% indigenous content (2021), with key imports (engine, transmission) from South Korea.
Target: Increase to 70–80% by 2030 through local production of power packs and electronics (e.g., L&T and BEL initiatives).
Progress: Second batch (if ordered) will have higher indigenization, reducing costs and import reliance.

3. Usage

Operational Role

Primary Function: Deliver rapid, long-range artillery support in mobile warfare, targeting enemy armor, fortifications, and troop concentrations.
Key Capabilities:

Range: 28 km (standard rounds), 40–50 km (HEBB or rocket-assisted rounds).
Firing Rate: Burst (6–8 rounds/min), sustained (2–3 rounds/min); automated loading enhances speed.
Mobility: Tracked chassis with 1,000 hp engine; 48–56 km/h on roads, 30–40 km/h off-road; ideal for desert and plains.
Protection: Armored cabin withstands small arms and shrapnel; nuclear, biological, chemical (NBC) protection.
Fire Control: Advanced system with thermal imaging, laser rangefinder, and GPS/NavIC integration for precision.

Deployment:

Primarily in Western Command (Rajasthan, Punjab) along the India-Pakistan border for desert operations.
Recent trials for Eastern Command (Ladakh) to counter Chinese PLA in high-altitude terrains.
Organized into regiments (18–21 guns each); ~5 regiments operational with 100 units.

Command Integration:

Operates under Artillery Combat Command and Control System (ACCCS) (Shakti) for networked targeting.
No integration with Akashteer (air defense system), as K9 Vajra-T is ground-focused.

Strategic Importance

Desert Warfare: Enhances India’s ability to counter Pakistan’s armored and artillery units in Rajasthan and Punjab.
High-Altitude Role: Post-2020 Galwan clash, adaptations for Ladakh strengthen deterrence against China.
FARP Alignment: Complements towed systems (Dhanush, ATAGS) for a balanced artillery mix.
Showcase: Displayed at Defence Expo 2020 and Army Day 2023, highlighting India-South Korea defense collaboration.

Operation Sindoor (May 2025)

Context: Indian strikes on terror camps in Pakistan/PoK; K9 Vajra-T likely used for ground fire support along the LoC, though no specific role documented.
Role: Provided rapid, precise bombardment to deter Pakistani counter-shelling; not linked to Akashteer or air defense.

4. Costs

Equipment Cost

First Batch (100 units, 2016): ₹4,366 crore (~$1.2 billion at ₹36/$); ₹43.66 crore/gun.
Second Batch (100 units, proposed): Estimated at ₹4,500–5,000 crore (~₹45–50 crore/gun), reflecting inflation and higher indigenization.
Factors:

High initial cost due to ~50% imported components (engine, transmission).
Local assembly and indigenization reduce costs compared to fully imported systems (e.g., German PzH 2000: ~₹60–80 crore/gun).

Servicing Cost

Annual Maintenance: ~₹20–25 lakh/gun, covering spares, crew training, and software updates.
Overhaul: ~₹3–4 crore/gun every 10–15 years for engine, track, and barrel replacement.
Infrastructure: Testing ranges, storage, and training for 100 guns = ~₹100–150 crore/decade.

Ammunition Cost

Conventional 155mm Rounds: ₹50,000–₹1 lakh/round (MIL-produced).
Bi-Modular Charge Systems (BMCS): ₹2–3 lakh/system.
Precision Rounds (Excalibur): ₹10–15 lakh/round (imported).
Smart Ammunition (developing): ₹15–20 lakh/round (NavIC-guided, 60 km range, expected 2027–29).
Annual Estimate: For 18 guns (1 regiment), 1,000 rounds/gun (mixed types) = ~₹90–120 crore.

Lifecycle Cost

For 100 guns over 30 years (procurement, servicing, ammo): ~₹8,000–10,000 crore, higher than Dhanush/ATAGS due to self-propelled complexity and imports.

5. Export Potential

Market Prospects

Global Demand: Self-propelled howitzers are sought for mobile warfare in Asia, Middle East, and Eastern Europe, driven by conflicts like Ukraine.
K9 Vajra-T Strengths:

Proven Platform: K9 Thunder variants exported to Australia, Norway, Poland, and Turkey; Vajra-T leverages this pedigree.
Adaptability: Tropicalized for extreme climates, appealing to desert and high-altitude nations.
Cost: ₹45–50 crore/gun vs. ₹60–100 crore for Western systems (e.g., PzH 2000, M109A7).
Indigenization: ~50–60% local content (rising to 70%) ensures supply chain stability.

Target Markets:

Middle East: UAE, Saudi Arabia (diversifying from U.S./European suppliers).
Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia (modernizing artillery).
Africa: Egypt, Algeria (seeking mobile firepower).
Eastern Europe: Romania, Baltic states (countering Russian threats).

Revenue Potential: Exporting 50–100 units by 2035 could generate ₹2,250–5,000 crore, assuming production capacity expands.

Challenges

Production Constraints: L&T’s Hazira facility prioritizes domestic orders; export requires new lines (~₹1,000–1,500 crore investment).
Competition: Faces established players (KMW, BAE Systems) and cheaper Russian/Chinese options.
Export Licensing: South Korean technology transfer agreement may restrict exports without Hanwha’s approval.
Brand: K9 Vajra-T is less known than K9 Thunder; marketing as an India-specific variant needed.

Recommendations

Increase indigenization to 70–80% to lower costs and ease export approvals.
Partner with Hanwha for joint marketing in K9 Thunder markets.
Showcase at Defence Expo and bilateral military exercises to attract buyers.

6. Other Aspects

Technical Specifications

Barrel: 52-calibre, enabling 40–50 km range.
Mobility: 1,000 hp diesel engine; 67 km/h max speed; 360 km range.
Automation: Auto-loading, digital fire control, and ballistic computation.
Ammunition Compatibility: NATO 155mm rounds, BMCS, Excalibur, and smart ammo (developing).
Crew: 5 personnel (commander, gunner, driver, loader, assistant).

Comparison with Dhanush and ATAGS

Parameter	K9 Vajra-T	Dhanush	ATAGS
Type	Self-Propelled (Tracked)	Towed	Towed
Calibre	155mm/52-calibre	155mm/45-calibre	155mm/52-calibre
Range	40–50 km	36–38 km	45–48 km
Weight	~47 tons	~13 tons	~18 tons
Firing Rate	6–8 rounds/min (burst)	8 rounds/min	10 rounds/min (burst)
Mobility	High (tracked, 67 km/h)	Towed, self-propulsion unit	Towed, limited self-propulsion
Cost (per gun)	₹43.66–50 crore	₹14.5 crore	₹18–20 crore
Indigenization	50–60% (target 70–80%)	81–91%	95–100%
Role	Mobile warfare, desert/high-altitude	High-altitude, general support	Long-range precision, future mainstay

Insights:

K9 Vajra-T: Excels in mobility and rapid response; ideal for dynamic fronts but costlier and less indigenized.
Dhanush: Lightweight, cost-effective for high-altitude; transitional system.
ATAGS: Advanced, fully indigenous; future-focused but less mobile than K9.

Future Developments

High-Altitude Variant: Enhanced engines and electronics for Ladakh deployment.
Smart Ammunition: Integration with 60 km, NavIC-guided rounds by 2027–29.
Additional Orders: Potential for 100–200 more units by 2030, depending on budget and ATAGS induction pace.
Upgrades: Improved fire control and local power packs to boost indigenization.

Strategic Context

Geopolitical Role: Strengthens India’s deterrence in desert (Pakistan) and high-altitude (China) theaters.
India-South Korea Ties: K9 Vajra-T exemplifies defense collaboration, paving the way for future joint projects.
Operation Sindoor (May 2025): Likely provided LoC fire support, enhancing India’s rapid response capability.

Conclusion

The K9 Vajra-T is a high-mobility, battle-proven self-propelled howitzer tailored for India’s desert and high-altitude needs. Its rapid delivery (100 units by 2021) and adaptations showcase India’s manufacturing prowess, though import reliance and high costs remain challenges. With ~50–60% indigenization and potential for 70–80%, it offers strong export prospects in mobile warfare markets, competing with Western systems at lower costs. As a complement to Dhanush and ATAGS, K9 Vajra-T strengthens India’s artillery mix, with future upgrades and orders ensuring its relevance through 2040.

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